Sexual slavery is the slavery of unwilling people for sexual exploitation. The incidence of sexual slavery by country has been studied and tabulated by UNESCO, with the cooperation of various international agencies

Sexual slavery is the slavery of unwilling people for sexual exploitation. The incidence of sexual slavery by country has been studied and tabulated by UNESCO, with the cooperation of various international agencies.[1] Sexual slavery may include single-owner sexual slavery, ritual slavery sometimes associated with certain religious practices, such as trokosi in Ghana/Togo/Benin, slavery for primarily non-sexual purposes but where non-consensual sex is common, or forced prostitution. The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action calls for an international response in order to attempt to eradicate sexual slavery on the basis that it is a human rights issue. Contents 1 Definition of sexual slavery 2 Forced Marriage 3 Sex trafficking 4 Commercial sexual exploitation of children 4.1 Child prostitution 4.2 Child pornography 4.3 Child sex tourism 5 Forced prostitution 6 Crime against humanity 7 Sexual slavery during armed conflict and war 7.1 Japan during World War II 7.2 Germany during World War II 8 Bride kidnapping and raptio 9 Contemporary sexual slavery 9.1 Europe 9.2 Africa 9.3 Asia 9.4 North America 10 Historical sexual slavery 10.1 White slavery 10.2 Arab slave trade 10.3 Asia 10.4 Sexual slavery in the United States 10.4.1 Paramour rights 11 See also 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links Definition of sexual slavery The Rome Statute (1998) (that defines the crimes over which the International Criminal Court may have jurisdiction) encompass crimes against humanity (Article 7) which includes "enslavement" (Article 7.1.c) and "sexual enslavement" (Article 7.1.g) "when committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population". It also defines sexual enslavement as a war crime and a breach of the Geneva Conventions when committed during an international armed conflict (Article 8.b.xxii) and indirectly in an internal armed conflict under Article(8.c.ii), but the courts jurisdiction over war crimes is explicitly excluded from including crimes committed during "situations of internal disturbances and tensions, such as riots, isolated and sporadic acts of violence or other acts of a similar nature" (Article 8.d).[2] The text of the Rome Statute does not explicitly define sexual enslavement, but does define enslavement as "the exercise of any or all of the powers attaching to the right of ownership over a person and includes the exercise of such power in the course of trafficking in persons, in particular women and children" (Article 7.2.c).[2][3] In the commentary on the Rome Statute,[4] Mark Klamberg states:[5][6] Sexual slavery is particular form of enslavement which includes limitations on one's autonomy, freedom of movement and power to decide matters relating to one's sexual activity. Thus, the crime also includes forced marriages, domestic servitude or other forced labor that ultimately involves forced sexual activity. In contrast to the crime of rape, which is a completed offence, sexual slavery constitutes a continuing offence. ... Forms of sexual slavery can, for example, be practices such as the detention of women in "rape camps" or "comfort stations", forced temporary "marriages" to soldiers and other practices involving the treatment of women as chattel, and as such, violations of the peremptory norm prohibiting slavery. Forced Marriage Main article: Forced marriage In 2008, the Special Court for Sierra Leone's (SCSL) Appeals Chamber found the abduction and confinement of women for "forced marriage" in war to be a new crime against humanity (AFRC decision).The SCSL Trial Chamber in the recent Charles Taylor decision found that the term 'forced marriage' should be avoided and rather described the practice in war as 'conjugal slavery' (2012). Sex trafficking Main article: Human trafficking Sex trafficking is a type of Human trafficking involving the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbour or receipt of persons, by coercive or abusive means for the purpose of sexual exploitation. Sex trafficking is not the only form of human trafficking and estimates vary as to the percentage of human trafficking which is for the purpose of transporting someone into sexual slavery. The BBC News cited a report by UNODC as listing the most common destinations for victims of human trafficking in 2007 as Thailand and Japan.[7] The report lists Thailand, China, Nigeria, Albania, Bulgaria, Belarus, Moldova and Ukraine as major sources of trafficked persons. Commercial sexual exploitation of children Main article: Commercial sexual exploitation of children Commercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC) includes prostitution of children, child pornography, child sex tourism, trafficking of children for sexual purposes, or other forms of transactional sex with children. The Youth Advocate Program International (YAPI) describes CSEC as a form of coercion and violence against children and a contemporary form of slavery.[8][9] A declaration of the World Congress Against the Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children, held in Stockholm in 1996, defined CSEC as, "sexual abuse by the adult and remuneration in cash or in kind to the child or to a third person or persons. The child is treated as a sexual object and as a commercial object".[9] Child prostitution Main article: Prostitution of children The prostitution of children is a form of commercial sexual exploitation of children in which a child performs the services of prostitution, usually for the financial benefit of an adult. India's federal police said in 2009 that they believed around 1.2 million children in India to be involved in prostitution.[10] A CBI statement said that studies and surveys sponsored by the Ministry of Women and Child Development estimated about 40% of India's prostitutes to be children.[10] Thailand’s Health System Research Institute reported that children in prostitution make up 40% of prostitutes in Thailand.[11] In some parts of the world, child prostitution is tolerated or ignored by the authorities. Reflecting an attitude which prevails in many developing countries, a judge from Honduras said, on condition of anonymity: "If the victim [the child prostitute] is older than 12, if he or she refuses to file a complaint and if the parents clearly profit from their child's commerce, we tend to look the other way".[12] Child pornography Main article: Child pornography Child pornography, sometimes referred to as 'child abuse images',[13][14][15] refers to images or films depicting sexually explicit activities involving a child. As such, child pornography is a visual record of child sexual abuse.[16][17][18][19][20][21] Abuse of the child occurs during the sexual acts which are photographed in the production of child pornography,[16][17][19][20][21][22][23] and the effects of the abuse on the child (and continuing into maturity) are compounded by the wide distribution and lasting availability of the photographs of the abuse.[21][22][24] Child sex tourism Main article: Child sex tourism Child sex tourism is a travel to a foreign country for the purpose of engaging in commercially facilitated child sexual abuse.[25] Child sex tourism results in both mental and physical consequences for the exploited children, that may include "disease (including HIV/AIDS), drug addiction, pregnancy, malnutrition, social ostracism, and possibly death", according to the State Department of the United States.[25] Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil and Mexico have been identified as leading hotspots of child sexual exploitation.[26] Forced prostitution Main article: Forced prostitution Most, if not all, forms of forced prostitution may be viewed as a kind of sexual slavery.[27] The terms "forced prostitution" or "enforced prostitution" appear in international and humanitarian conventions but have been insufficiently understood and inconsistently applied. "Forced prostitution" generally refers to conditions of control over a person who is coerced by another to engage in sexual activity.[28] The issue of consent in prostitution is a hotly debated issue. Opinion in places like Europe has been divided over the question of whether prostitution itself should be considered as a free choice or as inherently exploitative of women.[29] The law in Sweden, Norway and Iceland – where it is illegal to pay for sex, but not to sell sexual services – is based on the notion that all forms of prostitution are inherently exploitative, opposing the notion that prostitution can be voluntary.[30] In contrast, prostitution is a recognized profession in countries such as Netherlands and Germany. In 1949 the UN General Assembly adopted the Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others (the 1949 Convention). The 1949 Convention supersedes a number of earlier conventions that covered some aspects of forced prostitution. Signatories are charged with three obligations under the 1949 Convention: prohibition of trafficking, specific administrative and enforcement measures, and social measures aimed at trafficked persons. The 1949 Convention presents two shifts in perspective of the trafficking problem in that it views prostitutes as victims of the procurers, and in that it eschews the terms "white slave traffic" and "women," using for the first time race- and gender-neutral language.[31] Article 1 of the 1949 Convention provides punishment for any person who "[p]rocures, entices or leads away, for purposes of prostitution, another person" or "[e]xploits the prostitution of another person, even with the consent of that person." To fall under the provisions of the 1949 Convention, the trafficking need not cross international lines.[31] Crime against humanity The Rome Statute Explanatory Memorandum, which defines the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court, recognizes rape, sexual slavery, forced prostitution, forced pregnancy, forced sterilization, "or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity" as crime against humanity if the action is part of a widespread or systematic practice.[32][33] Sexual slavery was first recognized as a crime against humanity when the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia issued arrest warrants based on the Geneva Conventions and Violations of the Laws or Customs of War. Specifically, it was recognised that Muslim women in Foča (southeastern Bosnia and Herzegovina) were subjected to systematic and widespread gang rape, torture and sexual enslavement by Bosnian Serb soldiers, policemen, and members of paramilitary groups after the takeover of the city in April 1992.[34] The indictment was of major legal significance and was the first time that sexual assaults were investigated for the purpose of prosecution under the rubric of torture and enslavement as a crime against humanity.[34] The indictment was confirmed by a 2001 verdict by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia that rape and sexual enslavement are crimes against humanity. This ruling challenged the widespread acceptance of rape and sexual enslavement of women as intrinsic part of war.[35] The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia found three Bosnian Serb men guilty of rape of Bosniac (Bosnian Muslim) women and girls – some as young as 12 and 15 years of age – in Foča, eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina. The charges were brought as crimes against humanity and war crimes. Furthermore two of the men were found guilty of the crime against humanity of sexual enslavement for holding women and girls captive in a number of de facto detention centers. Many of the women had subsequently disappeared.[35] Sexual slavery during armed conflict and war Rangoon, Burma. August 8, 1945. A young ethnic Chinese woman who was in one of the Imperial Japanese Army's "comfort battalions" is interviewed by a RAF officer. Main articles: War rape, Comfort women, and German military brothels in World War II Rape and sexual violence have accompanied warfare in virtually every known historical era.[36] Before the 19th century, military circles supported the notion that all persons, including unarmed women and children, were still the enemy, with the belligerent (nation or person engaged in conflict) having conquering rights over them.[37] "To the victor goes the spoils" has been a war cry for centuries and women were included as part of the spoils of war.[38] Institutionalised sexual slavery and enforced prostitution have been documented in a number of wars, most notably the Second World War. Japan during World War II "Comfort women" are a widely publicised example of sexual slavery. The term refers to the women who served in the Japanese army's camps during World War II. Estimates vary as to how many women were involved, with numbers ranging from as low as 20,000 from some Japanese scholars[39] to as high as 410,000 from some Chinese scholars,[40] but the exact numbers are still being researched and debated. Majority were from Korea, China, and other occupied territories part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, and were recruited by kidnapping or deception to serve as sex slaves.[41][42][43][44] Many women were raped to the point of death or killed by torture, such as having their breasts sliced off or having their abdomens slit open.[45] Each slave was reportedly raped "an average of 10 rapes per day (considered by some to be a low estimate), for a five-day work week; this figure can be extrapolated to estimate that each 'comfort girl' was raped around 50 times per week or 2,500 times per year. For three years of service – the average – a comfort girl would have been raped 7,500 times." (Parker 1995 United Nations Commissions on Human Rights)[46] Germany during World War II During World War II, Germany established brothels in the concentration camps for the sexual gratification of collaborating prisoners (Lagerbordell). The women forced to work in the concentration camp brothels came from the Ravensbrück concentration camp,[47] Soldier's brothels (Wehrmachtsbordell) were usually organized in already established whorehouses or in hotels confiscated by the Germans. The leaders of the Wehrmacht became interested in running their own brothels when sexual disease spread among the soldiers. In the controlled brothels, the women frequently had a medical check for sexually transmittable diseases. It is estimated that a minimum of 34,140 women from occupied states worked as prostitutes during the Third Reich.[48] In Eastern Europe the local women were often forced into prostitution.[49] On 3 May 1941 the Foreign Ministry of the Polish government-in-exile issued a document describing the mass raids made in Polish cities with the aim of capturing young women, who later were forced to work in brothels attended by German soldiers and officers.[49] There were often escape attempts, with at least one mass escape known to have been attempted by women in Norway.[49] Bride kidnapping and raptio Main articles: Bride kidnapping and raptio The Rape of the Sabine Women, by Nicolas Poussin, Rome, 1637–38 (Louvre Museum) Bride kidnapping, also known as marriage by abduction or marriage by captive, is a form of forced marriage practised in some traditional cultures. Bride kidnapping has reportedly occurred in countries spanning Central Asia, the Caucasus region, parts of Africa, and among the Hmong in southeast Asia, the Tzeltal in Mexico, and the Romani in Europe.[citation needed] Though the motivations behind bride kidnapping vary by region, the cultures with traditions of marriage by abduction are generally patriarchal with a strong social stigma on sex or pregnancy outside of marriage and illegitimate births.[50] In some cases, the couple collude together to elope under the guise of a bride kidnapping, presenting their parents with a fait accompli. In most cases, however, the men who resort to capturing a wife are often of lower social status, whether because of poverty, disease, poor character or criminality.[51] These men are sometimes deterred from legitimately seeking a wife because of the payment the woman's family expects, the bride price (not to be confused with a dowry, paid by the woman's family).[52] The Mongol invasion of Hungary. The Mongols, with captured women, are on the left, the Hungarians, with one saved woman, on the right. Bride kidnapping is distinguished from raptio in that the former refers to the abduction of one woman by one man (and/or his friends and relatives), and is often a widespread and ongoing practice, whereas the latter refers to the largescale abduction of women by groups of men, possibly in a time of war (see also war rape).[citation needed] The Latin term raptio refers to abduction of women, either for marriage (by kidnapping or elopement) or enslavement (particularly sexual slavery). In Roman Catholic canon law, raptio refers to the legal prohibition of matrimony if the bride was abducted forcibly (Canon 1089 CIC). The practice of raptio is surmised to have existed since anthropological antiquity. In Neolithic Europe, excavation of a Linear Pottery culture site at Asparn-Schletz, Austria, unearthed the remains of numerous slain victims. Among them, young adult females and children were clearly under-represented, suggesting that perhaps the attackers had killed the men but abducted the young females.[53] Contemporary sexual slavery Official estimates of individuals in sexual slavery worldwide vary. In 2001 the International Organization for Migration estimated 400,000, the Federal Bureau of Investigation estimated 700,000 and UNICEF estimated 1.75 million.[54] Europe De Wallen red-light district in Amsterdam. Most of the trafficked girls and women come from central and eastern Europe. In Netherlands, the Bureau of the Dutch Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings in 2005 estimated that there are from 1,000 to 7,000 trafficking victims a year. Most police investigations relate to legal sex businesses, with all sectors of prostitution being well represented, but with window brothels being particularly overrepresented.[55][56][57] Dutch news site Expatica reported that in 2008, there were 809 registered trafficking victims in the Netherlands; out of those 763 were women and at least 60 percent of them were reportedly forced to work in the sex industry. Of reported victims, those from Hungary were all female and all forced into prostitution.[58][59] In Germany, the trafficking of women from Eastern Europe is often organized by people from that same region. German authorities identified 676 sex-trafficking victims in 2008, compared with 689 in 2007.[60] The German Federal Police Office BKA reported in 2006 a total of 357 completed investigations of human trafficking, with 775 victims. Thirty-five percent of the suspects were Germans born in Germany and 8% were German citizens born outside of Germany.[61] In Greece, according to NGO estimates in 2008, there may be a total 13,000–14,000 trafficking victims of all types in the country at any given time. Major countries of origin for trafficking victims brought into Greece include Nigeria, Ukraine, Russia, Bulgaria, Albania, Moldova, Romania, and Belarus.[62] In Switzerland, the police estimated in 2006 that there may be between 1,500 and 3,000 victims of all types of human trafficking. The organizers and their victims generally come from Hungary, Slovakia, Romania, Ukraine, Moldova, Lithuania, Brazil, the Dominican Republic, Thailand and Cambodia, and, to a lesser extent, Africa.[63] In Belgium, in 2007, prosecutors handled a total of 418 trafficking cases, including 219 economic exploitation and 168 sexual exploitation cases. In the same year, the federal judicial police handled 196 trafficking files, compared with 184 in 2006. In 2007 the police arrested 342 persons for smuggling and trafficking-related crimes.[64] A recent report by RiskMonitor foundation estimated that 70% of the prostitutes who work in Belgium are from Bulgaria.[65] In Austria, Vienna has the largest number of reported trafficking cases, although trafficking is also a problem in urban centers such as Graz, Linz, Salzburg, and Innsbruck. The NGO Lateinamerikanische Frauen in Oesterreich–Interventionsstelle fuer Betroffene des Frauenhandels (LEFOE-IBF) reported assisting 108 victims of all types of human trafficking in 2006, down from 151 in 2005.[66] In Spain, in 2007, officials identified 1,035 sex trafficking victims and 445 labor trafficking victims.[67] Africa See also: Slavery in modern Africa In Africa the colonial powers abolished slavery in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. However, in areas outside their jurisdiction, such as the Mahdist empire in Sudan, the practice continued to thrive. Now, institutional slavery has been banned worldwide, but there are numerous reports of women sex slaves in areas without effective government control, such as Sudan,[68] Liberia,[69] Sierra Leone,[70] northern Uganda,[71] Congo,[72] Niger[73] and Mauritania.[74] In Ghana, Togo, and Benin, a form of religious prostitution known as trokosi ("ritual servitude") forcibly keeps thousands of girls and women in traditional shrines as "wives of the gods", where priests perform the sexual function in place of the gods.[75] Asia Nepali mother who travelled to Mumbai, India, hoping to rescue her teenage daughter from an Indian brothel. In January 2010, the supreme court of India stated that India is "becoming a hub" for largescale child prostitution rackets, and suggested the setting up of a special investigating agency to tackle the growing problem.[76] An article about the Rescue Foundation in New Internationalist magazine states that "according to Save the Children India, clients now prefer 10- to 12-year-old girls". The same article attributes the rising number of prostitutes believed to have contracted HIV in India’s brothels as a factor in India becoming the country with the second-largest number of people living with HIV/AIDS in the world, behind South Africa.[77] In 2007, the Ministry of Women and Child Development estimated that there are around 2.8 million sex workers in India, with 35.47 percent of them entering the trade before the age of 18 years.[78][79] The number of prostitutes has also doubled in the recent decade.[80] One news article states that an estimated 200,000 Nepalese girls have been trafficked to red light areas of India.[81] Nepalese women and girls, especially virgins, are reportedly favoured in India because of their fair skin and young looks.[82][83] One report estimates that every year between 5,000 and 7,000 Nepalese girls are trafficked into the red light districts in Indian cities, and that many of the girls may only be 9 or 10 years old.[84] In Pakistan, young girls have been sold by their families to big-city brothel owners. Often this happens due to poverty or debt, whereby the family has no other way to raise the money than to sell the young girl.[85] Cases have also been reported where wives and sisters have been sold to brothels to raise money for gambling, drinking or drug addictions. Sex slaves are reportedly also bought by 'agents' in Afghanistan who trick young girls into coming to Pakistan for well-paying jobs. Once in Pakistan they are taken to brothels (called Kharabat) and forced into sexual slavery, some for many years.[86][87] In Thailand, the Health System Research Institute reported in 2005 that children in prostitution make up 40% of Thailand's prostitutes,[11] and that a proportion of prostitutes over the age of 18, including foreign nationals mostly from Burma, China's Yunnan province, Laos and Cambodia, are also in some state of forced sexual servitude.[88] The Tourism Police Bureau in 1997 stated that there were 500 Chinese and 200 European women in prostitution in Bangkok, many of whom entered Thailand illegally, often through Burma and Laos. Earlier reports, however, suggest different figures. (Police Colonel Sanit Meephan, deputy chief of Tourism Police Bureau, "Thailand popular haunt for foreign prostitues," The Nation, 15 January 1997) The trafficking in Persons Report of 2007 from the US Department of State says that sexual slavery exists in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, where women and children may be trafficked from the post-Soviet states, Eastern Europe, Far East, Africa, South Asia or other parts of the Middle East.[89][90][91] North America The San Francisco Chronicle reported in 2006 that in the 21st century, women, mostly from South America, Southeast Asia, and the former Soviet Union, are trafficked into the United States for the purposes of sexual slavery.[92] A 2006 ABC News story stated that, contrary to existing misconceptions, American citizens may also be coerced into sex slavery.[93] In 2001 the United States State Department estimated that 50,000 to 100,000 women and girls are trafficked each year into the United States. In 2003, the State Department report estimated that a total of 18,000 to 20,000 individuals were trafficked into the United States for either forced labor or sexual exploitation. The June 2004 report estimated the total trafficked annually at between 14,500 and 17,500.[94] The Bush administration set up 42 Justice Department task forces and spent more than $150 million on attempts to reduce human trafficking. However, in the seven years since the law was passed, the administration has identified only 1,362 victims of human trafficking brought into the United States since 2000, nowhere near the 50,000 or more per year the government had estimated.[95] The Girl’s Education & Mentoring Services (GEMS), an organization based in New York, claims that the majority of girls in the sex trade were abused as children. Poverty and a lack of education play major roles in the lives of many women in the sex industry. According to a report conducted by the University of Pennsylvania, anywhere from 100,000 up to 300,000 American children at any given time may be at risk of exploitation due to factors such as drug use, homelessness, or other factors connected with increased risk for commercial sexual exploitation.[96] However, the report emphasized, “The numbers presented in these exhibits do not, therefore, reflect the actual number of cases of CSEC in the United States but, rather, what we estimate to be the number of children ‘at risk’ of commercial sexual exploitation.” The 2010 Trafficking in Persons report described the United States as, "a source, transit, and destination country for men, women, and children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced labor, debt bondage, and forced prostitution." [97] Sexual slavery in the United States may occur in multiple forms and in multiple venues. Sex trafficking in the United States may be present in Asian massage parlors, Mexican cantina bars, residential brothels, or street-based pimp-controlled prostitution. There is currently a debate among the anti-trafficking community in the United States over the extent of sexual slavery. Some groups arguing that exploitation is inherent in the act of commercial sex, while other groups take a stricter approach to defining sexual slavery, considering an element of force, fraud or coercion to be necessary for sex slavery to exist. The prostitutes in illegal massage parlors may be forced to work out of apartment complexes for many hours a day.[98] Many clients may not realize that some of the women who work in these massage sex parlors are actually forced in prostitution.[98] The women may initially be lured into the US under false pretenses. In huge debt to their 'owners', they are then forced to earn enough to eventually buy their freedom.[98] In some cases women who have been sex trafficked may have to undergo plastic surgery or even forced abortions.[99] An article in the Berkeley University Press reports that human trafficking and sexual enslavement are not limited to any specific location or social class, and concludes that there is a strong reliance on individuals to report suspicious behavior, because the psychological and physical abuse occurs which can often leave a victim unable to escape on their own.[100] In 2000 Congress created the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act with tougher punishments for sex traffickers and also the creation of the possibility for former sex slaves to obtain a T-1 visa.[98] To obtain the visa women must, "prove they were enslaved by 'force, fraud or coercion'."[98] The visa allows former victims of sex trafficking to stay in the United States for 3 years and then apply for a green card.[98] The Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS) has been suspected of trafficking underage women across state lines as well as across the US–Canada[101] and US–Mexico borders[102] for the purpose of sometimes involuntary plural marriage and sexual abuse.[103] The FLDS is suspected by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police of having trafficked more than 30 under-age girls from Canada to the United States between the late 1990s and 2006 to be entered into polygamous marriages,[101] with RCMP spokesman Dan Moskaluk stating of the FLDS's activities "In essence, it's human trafficking in connection with illicit sexual activity."[104] According to the Vancouver Sun, it's unclear whether or not Canada's anti-human trafficking statute can be effectively applied against the FLDS's pre-2005 activities, because the statute may not be able to be applied retroactively.[105] An earlier three-year-long investigation by local authorities in British Columbia into allegations of sexual abuse, human trafficking, and forced marriages by the FLDS resulted in no charges, but did result in legislative change.[106] Former FLDS members have also alleged that children belonging to the sect were forced to perform sexual acts as children upon older men while being unable to leave in what has been described as sexual slavery by multiple former members of the group as well as by the headline of an article in the Sydney Morning Herald,[107][108] with one former resident of Yearning for Zion, Kathleen Mackert, stating: "I was required to perform oral sex on my father when I was seven, and it escalated from there."[108] Historical sexual slavery White slavery The Slave Market (c. 1884), painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme, an Orientalist conception of the Arab sex slave market. In English-speaking countries in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the phrase "white slavery" was used to refer to sexual enslavement of white women. It was particularly associated with orientalist accounts of women enslaved in Middle Eastern harems, such as the so-called Circassian beauties.[109] The phrase gradually came to be used as a euphemism for prostitution.[110] The phrase was especially common in the context of the exploitation of minors, with the implication that children and young women in such circumstances were not free to decide their own fate. Statue entitled "The White Slave" by Abastenia St. Leger Eberle, a controversial sculpture meant to depict modern western sexual enslavement. In Victorian Britain, campaigning journalist William Thomas Stead, (editor of the Pall Mall Gazette) procured a 13 year-old girl for £5, an amount then equal to a labourer's monthly wage (see the Eliza Armstrong case). Panic over the "traffic in women" rose to a peak in England in the 1880s. At the time, "white slavery" was a natural target for defenders of public morality and crusading journalists. The ensuing outcry led to the passage of antislavery legislation in Parliament. Parliament passed the 1885 Criminal Law Amendment Act, raising the age of consent from thirteen to sixteen in that year.[111] The Merchant's Pearl by Alfredo Valenzuela Puelma, (c. 1884) A subsequent scare occurred in the United States in the early twentieth century, peaking in 1910, when Chicago's U.S. attorney announced (without giving details) that an international crime ring was abducting young girls in Europe, importing them, and forcing them to work in Chicago brothels. These claims, and the panic they inflamed, led to the passage of the United States White-Slave Traffic Act of 1910, generally known as the "Mann Act". It also banned the interstate transport of females for immoral purposes. Its primary intent was to address prostitution and immorality.[112] Chinese immigrants in the U.S. were singled out as white slavers, although any such activity was restricted to the criminal segment of the Chinese community. As an example of this in American culture, the musical comedy Thoroughly Modern Millie features a Chinese-run prostitution ring, which is specifically referred to as "white slavery". The gangster movie Prime Cut has mid-West white slaves sold like cattle. Arab slave trade Further information: Arab slave trade See also: Slavery in the Ottoman Empire Slave trade, including trade of sex slaves,[113] fluctuated in certain regions in the Middle East up until the twentieth century.[114] These slaves came largely from Sub-Saharan Africa (mainly Zanj), the Caucasus (mainly Circassians),[115] Central Asia (mainly Turks), and Central and Eastern Europe (mainly Saqaliba).[116] The Barbary pirates also captured 1.25 million slaves from Western Europe between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries.[117][118] In contrast to the Atlantic slave trade where the male-female ratio was 2:1 or 3:1, the Arab slave trade usually had a higher female:male ratio instead, suggesting a general preference for female slaves. Concubinage and reproduction served as incentives for importing female slaves (often Caucasian), though many were also imported mainly for performing household tasks.[119] Asia In the 16th and 17th centuries, Portuguese visitors and their South Asian lascar (and sometimes African) crewmembers often engaged in slavery in Japan, where they bought or captured young Japanese women and girls, who were either used as sexual slaves on their ships or taken to Macau and other Portuguese colonies in Southeast Asia, the Americas,[120] and India.[121] For example, in Goa, a Portuguese colony in India, there was a community of Japanese slaves and traders during the late 16th and 17th centuries.[120][121] In the 19th and early 20th centuries, there was a network of Chinese and Japanese prostitutes being trafficked across Asia, in countries such as China, Japan, Korea, Singapore and British India, in what was then known as the ’Yellow Slave Traffic’. There was also a network of prostitutes from continental Europe being trafficked to India, Ceylon, Singapore, China and Japan at around the same time, in what was then known as the ’White Slave Traffic’.[122] During World War II, Japanese soldiers engaged in sexual slavery during their invasions across East Asia and Southeast Asia. The term "comfort women" is a euphemism for the estimated 200,000, mostly Korean, Chinese, and Filipino women who were forced into prostitution in Japanese military brothels during World War II.[123] Sexual slavery in the United States See also: Slavery in the United States Paramour rights The term paramour rights refers to the American practice of a white man taking a black woman to whom he was not married as his concubine. The term "paramour rights" was first used by Zora Neale Hurston.[citation needed] The practice began prior to the Civil War and was reinforced afterward by anti-miscegenation laws, which prohibited interracial marriage between whites and non-whites. Hurston first wrote about the practice in her anthropological studies of the turpentine camps of North Florida in the 1930s.[citation needed] She believed that the death knell of paramour rights was sounded by the trial of Ruby McCollum, a black woman who murdered her white lover, Dr. C. Leroy Adams, in Live Oak, Florida, in 1952.[citation needed] McCollum's trial was covered by Hurston for the Pittsburgh Courier. See also 1921 International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children Child grooming Sexism Tiny Hands International (THI) References ^ http://www.unescobkk.org/fileadmin/user_upload/culture/Trafficking/project/Graph_Worldwide_Sept_2004.pdf ^ a b "Articles 7 and 8", Rome Statute ^ However the elements of the crime of are sexual enslavement are described in more detail in a separate document originating from Article 9 of the Rome Statute: "General introduction 1. Pursuant to article 9 [of the Rome Statute], the following Elements of Crimes shall assist the Court in the interpretation and application of articles 6, 7 and 8, consistent with the Statute" (Article 1 of the Elements of the Crime). They are found in a paragraphs entitled "Article 7 (1) (g)-2 Crime against humanity of sexual slavery"; "Article 8 (2) (b) (xxii)-2 War crime of sexual slavery"; and "Article 8 (2) (e) (vi)-2 War crime of sexual slavery". The same wording is used in all three paragraphs ("Article 7 (1) (g)-2 Crime against humanity of sexual slavery", Elements of Crime, International Criminal Law Database & Commentary, retrieved December 2012) Elements The perpetrator exercised any or all of the powers attaching to the right of ownership over one or more persons, such as by purchasing, selling, lending or bartering such a person or persons, or by imposing on them a similar deprivation of liberty. The perpetrator caused such person or persons to engage in one or more acts of a sexual nature. The conduct took place in the context of and was associated with an international armed conflict. The perpetrator was aware of factual circumstances that established the existence of an armed conflict. ^ Commentaries on treaties explain why certain words and phrases appeared in a treaty and what the delegates considered when agreeing to the words and phrases used. ^ Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, International Criminal Law Database & Commentary, p. footnotes: 29, 82, 107 ^ "The Rome Statute's Sexual Related Crimes: an Appraisal under the Light of International Humanitarian Law" (PDF). pp. 29–30. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ "UN highlights human trafficking". BBC News. 26 March 2007. Retrieved 6 April 2010. ^ "Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children (CSEC) and Child Trafficking". Youth Advocate Program International. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ a b Clift, Stephen; Simon Carter (2000). Tourism and Sex. Cengage Learning EMEA. pp. 75–78. ISBN 1-85567-636-2. ^ a b "Official: More than 1M child prostitutes in India". CNN. 11 May 2009. Retrieved 6 April 2010. ^ a b [1][dead link] ^ "Child prostitution: the ugliest part of tourism". Thepanamanews.com. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ Wortley, Richard; Stephen Smallbone (2006). Situational Prevention Of Child Sexual Abuse, Volume 19 of Crime prevention studies. Criminal Justice Press. p. 192. ISBN 1-881798-61-5. ^ Sanderson, Christiane (2004). The seduction of children: empowering parents and teachers to protect children from child sexual abuse. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. p. 133. ISBN 1-84310-248-X. ^ Akdeniz, Yaman (2008). Internet child pornography and the law: national and international responses. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 11. ISBN 0-7546-2297-5. ^ a b Finkelhor, David. "Current Information on the Scope and Nature of Child Sexual Abuse.". Future of Children. v4 n2 (Sum–Fall 1994): p31–53. ^ a b Hobbs, Christopher James; Helga G. I. Hanks, Jane M. Wynne (1999). Child Abuse and Neglect: A Clinician's Handbook. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 328. ISBN 0-443-05896-2. "Child pornography is part of the violent continuum of child sexual abuse" ^ Claire Milner, Ian O'Donnel. (2007). Child Pornography: Crime, computers and society. Willan Publishing. pp. p123. ^ a b Sheldon, Kerry; Dennis Howitt (2007). Sex Offenders and the Internet. John Wiley and Sons. pp. p20. ISBN 0-470-02800-9. "'Child pornography is not pornography in any real sense; simply the evidence recorded on film or video tape – of serious sexual assaults on young children' (Tate, 1992, p.203) ... 'Every piece of child pornography, therefore, is a record of the sexual use/abuse of the children involved.' Kelly and Scott (1993, p. 116) ... '...the record of the systematic rape, abuse, and torture of children on film and photograph, and other electronic means.' Edwards(2000, p.1)" ^ a b Klain, Eva J.; Heather J. Davies, Molly A. Hicks, ABA Center on Children and the Law (2001). Child Pornography: The Criminal-justice-system Response. National Center for Missing & Exploited Children. "Because the children depicted in child pornography are often shown while engaged in sexual activity with adults or other children,they are first and foremost victims of child sexual abuse." ^ a b c Wortley, Richard; Stephen Smallbone. "Child Pornography on the Internet". Problem-Oriented Guides for Police. No. 41: p17. "The children portrayed in child pornography are first victimized when their abuse is perpetrated and recorded. They are further victimized each time that record is accessed." ^ a b Sheldon, Kerry; Dennis Howitt (2007). Sex Offenders and the Internet. John Wiley and Sons. pp. p9. ISBN 0-470-02800-9. "...supplying the material to meet this demand results in the further abuse of children Pictures, films and videos function as a permanent record of the original sexual abuse. Consequently, memories of the trauma and abuse are maintained as long as the record exists. Victims filmed and photographed many years ago will nevertheless be aware throughout their lifetimes that their childhood victimization continues to be exploited perversely." ^ Agnes Fournier de Saint Maur (January 1999). "Sexual Abuse of Children on the Internet: A New Challenge for INTERPOL" (PDF). Expert Meeting on Sexual Abuse of Children, Child Pornography and Paedophilia on the Internet: an international challenge. UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization). ^ Wells, M.; Finkelhor, D.; Wolak, J.; Mitchell, K. (2007). "Defining Child Pornography: Law Enforcement Dilemmas in Investigations of Internet Child Pornography Possession" (PDF). Police Practice and Research 8 (3): 269–282. doi:10.1080/15614260701450765. Retrieved 2008-07-01. ^ a b "The Facts About Child Sex Tourism". Fact Sheet. US Dept of State, Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons. February 29, 2008. ^ "RIGHTS-MEXICO: 16,000 Victims of Child Sexual Exploitation". IPS. Retrieved 16 June 2012. "International organisations fighting child sex tourism say Mexico is one of the leading hotspots of child sexual exploitation, along with Thailand, Cambodia, India, and Brazil." ^ Boot, Machteld (2002). Genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes: nullum crimen sine lege and the subject matter jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court. Intersentia nv. p. 514. ISBN 978-90-5095-216-3. ^ "Report of the Special Rapporteur on systemic rape". The United Nations Commission on Human Rights. 22 June 1998. Retrieved 10 November 2009. ^ "Spain divided over semi-legal prostitution". Digitaljournal.com. 2007-08-29. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ Wallace, Bob, The Ban on Purchasing Sex in Sweden: The So-Called 'Swedish Model', Office of the Prostitution Licensing Authority, pp. 1–2 ^ a b http://www.entrepreneur.com/tradejournals/article/90192936_2.html[dead link] ^ As quoted by Guy Horton in Dying Alive – A Legal Assessment of Human Rights Violations in Burma April 2005, co-Funded by The Netherlands Ministry for Development Co-Operation. See section "12.52 Crimes against humanity", Page 201. He references RSICC/C, Vol. 1 p. 360 ^ "Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court". Untreaty.un.org. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ a b "Rape as a Crime Against Humanity". Michael Sells for "Community of Bosnia". May 1997. Archived from the original on 9 January 2009. ^ a b "Bosnia and Herzegovina : Foca verdict – rape and sexual enslavement are crimes against humanity". Amnesty International. 22 February 2001. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. ^ Levinson, Bernard M. (2004). Gender and Law in the Hebrew Bible and the Ancient Near East. p. 203. ISBN 978-0-567-08098-1. ^ Askin, Kelly Dawn (1997). War Crimes Against Women: Prosecution in International War Crimes Tribunals. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 26–27. ISBN 90-411-0486-0. ^ Askin, Kelly Dawn (1997). War Crimes Against Women: Prosecution in International War Crimes Tribunals. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 10–21. ISBN 90-411-0486-0. ^ Cite error: The named reference AWF_CW was invoked but never defined (see the help page). ^ Rose 2005, p. 88 ^ [2][dead link] ^ Fackler, Martin (6 March 2007). "No Apology for Sex Slavery, Japan’s Prime Minister Says". The New York Times. Retrieved 23 March 2007. ^ "Abe questions sex slave 'coercion'". BBC News. 2007-03-02. Retrieved 23 March 2007. ^ "Japan party probes sex slave use". BBC News. 2007-03-08. Retrieved 23 March 2007. ^ Peter Li (2003). Japanese war crimes: the search for justice. Transaction Publishers. pp. 45–. ISBN 978-0-7658-0890-5. Retrieved 8 March 2011. ^ Parker, Karen. "U.N. Speech on Comfort Women – Karen Parker, J.D. speaking on sexual slavery". Guidetoaction.org. Retrieved 2011-03-08. ^ War crimes against women: prosecution in international war crimes tribunals Kelly Dawn Askin page 72 ^ The Blessed Abyss: Inmate #6582 in Ravensbruck Concentration Prison for Women by Nanda Herbermann ^ a b c Numer: 17/18/2007 Wprost "Seksualne Niewolnice III Rzeszy" ^ See Brian Stross, Tzeltal Marriage by Capture, Anthropological Quarterly, Vol. 47, No. 3, Kidnapping and Elopement as Alternative Systems of Marriage (Special Issue) (July 1974), pp. 328–346 (describing Tzeltal culture as patriarchal with a few opportunities for "pre-marital cross-sex interaction")[hereinafter Stross, Tzeltal Marriage by Capture]; Sabina Kiryashova, Azeri Bride Kidnappers Risk Heavy Sentences, http://www.iwpr.net/?p=wpr&s=f&o=258105&apc_state=henpwp (discussing the shame brought on Azeri kidnap victims who spend a night outside of the house); Gulo Kokhodze & Tamuna Uchidze, Bride Theft Rampant in Southern Georgia, http://www.iwpr.net/?p=crs&s=f&o=321627&apc_state=henh (discussing the Georgian case), where "great social stigma attaches to the suspicion of lost virginity.". Compare with Barbara Ayres, Bride Theft and Raiding for Wives in Cross-Cultural Perspective, Anthropological Quarterly, Vol. 47, No. 3, Kidnapping and Elopement as Alternative Systems of Marriage (Special Issue) (July 1974), pp. 245. ("There is no relationship between bride theft and status distinctions, bride price, or attitudes toward premarital virginity. The absence of strong associations in these areas suggests the need for a new hypothesis.".) ^ See Stross, Tzeltal Marriage by Capture (Tzeltal culture); George Scott, The Migrants Without Mountains: The Sociocultural Adjustment Among the Lao Hmong Refugees In San Diego (Ann Arbor, MI: A Bell And Howell Company, 1986), pp. 82–85 (Hmong culture); Alex Rodriguez, Kidnapping a Bride Practice Embraced in Kyrgyzstan, Augusta Chronicle, 24 July 2005 (Kyrgyz culture); ^ See Stross, Tzeltal Marriage by Capture, pp. 342–343; Craig S. Smith, Abduction, Often Violent, a Kyrgyz Wedding Rite, N.Y. Times, 30 April 2005. ^ Eisenhauer, U., Kulturwandel und Innovationsprozess: Die fünf grossen 'W' und die Verbreitung des Mittelneolithikums in Südwestdeutschland. Archäologische Informationen 22, 1999, 215–239; an alternative interpretation is the focus of abduction of children rather than women, a suggestion also made for the mass grave excavated at Thalheim. See E Biermann, Überlegungen zur Bevölkerungsgrösse in Siedlungen der Bandkeramik (2001) ^ Sex Slaves: Estimating Numbers, Public Broadcasting System "Frontline" fact site. ^ "Zoeken op Bnrm English". English.bnrm.nl. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ "third". English.bnrm.nl. 2007-09-18. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ "fourth". English.bnrm.nl. 2007-09-18. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ "Increase in human trafficking in Netherlands < Dutch news | Expatica The Netherlands". Expatica.com. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ "Dutch authorities register 809 human trafficking victims". Crossroadsmag.eu. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ "2009 Human Rights Report: Germany". State.gov. 2010-03-11. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ Reports on human trafficking, by the BKA. (German) ^ "2008 Human Rights Report: Greece". State.gov. 2009-02-25. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ "Prostitution in Switzerland is thriving, generating an annual turnover of SFr3.2 billion, say police". Swissinfo.ch. 2006-06-03. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ "2008 Human Rights Report: Belgium". State.gov. 2009-02-25. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ Petar Kostadinov (2009-04-07). "70 per cent of prostitutes in Belgium are from Bulgaria – report – Bulgaria". Sofiaecho.com. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ "2008 Human Rights Report: Austria". State.gov. 2009-02-25. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ "2008 Human Rights Report: Spain". State.gov. 2009-02-25. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ [3][dead link] ^ "Africa | Liberia's Taylor appears in court". BBC News. 2007-07-03. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ "Human Rights Watch | Defending Human Rights Worldwide". Hrw.org. 2010-07-26. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ "Uganda: No Amnesty for Atrocities | Human Rights Watch". Hrw.org. 2006-07-28. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ "Girls at U.N. meeting urge action against sex slavery, trafficking, child labor, AIDS". Nctimes.com. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ Andersson, Hilary. (2005-02-11) Programmes | From Our Own Correspondent | Born to be a slave in Niger. BBC News. Retrieved on 2011-03-08. ^ "Africa | Mauritanian MPs pass slavery law". BBC News. 2007-08-09. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ Ghana's trapped slaves, By Humphrey Hawksley in eastern Ghana, 8 February 2001. BBC News ^ "India becoming a hub of child prostitution: SC". The Times Of India. 29 January 2010. ^ "The Rescue Foundation – New Internationalist". Newint.org. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ Around 2.8 mn prostitutes in India Indian Express, May 8, 2007. ^ "BBC report on number of female sex workers in India". BBC News. 2008-05-01. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ Bhat, Upasana (2006-07-03). "Prostitution 'increases' in India". BBC News. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ "Over 200,000 Nepali girls being trafficked to Indian red light areas_English_Xinhua". News.xinhuanet.com. 2009-02-15. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ "Millions Suffer in Sex Slavery". Archive.newsmax.com. 2001-04-24. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ "The Full Monte new world media – India". Thefullmonte.com. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ "India – Facts on Trafficking and Prostitution". Uri.edu. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ Bushell, Andrew. "PAKISTAN'S SLAVE TRADE:Afghan refugees sold into prostitution; indentured servitude flourishes;scenes from a slave auction". ^ "FrontPage Magazine". Frontpagemag.com. 2007-06-26. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ Sex Slaves Returning Home Raise AIDS Risks, Study Says, New York Times, 2007/08/01 ^ UNICRI Trafficking in Minors, Report on Thailand 2005[dead link] ^ United Arab Emirates, US Department of State ^ "Protection Act of 2000:". State.gov. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ "Country Narratives: Near East". US Department of State. ^ May, Meredith. "Sex Trafficking FIRST OF A FOUR PART SPECIAL REPORT." San Francisco Chronicle. Friday October 6, 2006. Retrieved on August 23, 2009. ^ "Teen Girls' Stories of Sex Trafficking in U.S.". ABC News. 9 February 2006. Retrieved 19 September 2009. ^ Heller, Nathan. "The Times' sex slaves story, revisited". Slate Magazine. Slate.com. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ Human Trafficking Evokes Outrage, Little Evidence. Washingtonpost.com (2007-09-22). Retrieved on 2011-03-08. ^ Microsoft Word – Exec_Sum_020220.doc. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2011-03-08. ^ Trafficking in Persons Report 2010 Country Narratives – Countries N Through Z. State.gov. Retrieved on 2011-03-08. ^ a b c d e f May, Meredith (24 August 2010). "DIARY OF A SEX SLAVE / LAST IN A FOUR-PART SPECIAL REPORT / FREE, BUT TRAPPED / In San Francisco, You Mi begins to put her life back together – but the cost is high". The San Francisco Chronicle. ^ http: www.truthdig.com/.../item/20060424_sex_slavery_ms_magazine? ^ Bales,Kevin and Ron Soodalter."The Slave Next Door: Human Trafficking and Slavery in America."Berkeley:University of California Press, 2009. Print. ^ a b "Dozens of girls may have been trafficked to U.S. to marry". CTV News. 11 August 2011. ^ Moore-Emmett, Andrea (July 27, 2010). "Polygamist Warren Jeffs Can Now Marry Off Underaged Girls With Impunity". Ms. blog. Retrieved on 2012-12-08. ^ Matas, Robert (30 March 2009). "Where 'the handsome ones go to the leaders'". Globe and Mail. ^ Waller, Matthew (25 November 2011). "FLDS may see more charges: International sex trafficking suspected". San Angelo Standard-Times. ^ "Bountiful parents delivered 12-year-old girls to arranged weddings". Vancouver Sun. 19 February 2011. ^ Mendoza, Martha (15 May 2008). "FLDS in Canada may face arrests soon". Deseret News. Retrieved 9 December 2012. ^ Comman, Julian (19 Oct 2003). "Three wives will guarantee you a place in paradise. The Taliban? No: welcome to the rebel Mormons". The Telegraph. ^ a b Munro, Ian (12 April 2008). "Grim tales surface of sect's sex slavery". Sydney Morning Herald. ^ Linda Frost, Never one nation: freaks, savages, and whiteness in U.S. popular culture, 1850–1877, University of Minnesota Press, 2005, p. 68-88. ^ In the US this usage becomes prominent around 1909: "a group of books and pamphlets appeared announcing a startling claim: a pervasive and depraved conspiracy was at large in the land, brutally trapping and seducing American girls into lives of enforced prostitution, or 'white slavery.' These white slave narratives, or white-slave tracts, began to circulate around 1909." Mark Thomas Connelly, The Response to Prostitution in the Progressive Era, University of North Carolina Press, 1980, p.114 ^ Cecil Adeams, "The Straight Dope: Was there really such a thing as "white slavery"?" January 15, 1999. ^ Cecil Adams, op. cit. ^ "Religions – Islam: Slavery in Islam". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ [4][dead link] ^ "Horrible Traffic in Circassian Women—Infanticide in Turkey," New York Daily Times, August 6, 1856 ^ "Soldier Khan". Avalanchepress.com. Retrieved 2012-07-08. ^ When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggests White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed. Researchnews.osu.edu. Retrieved on 2011-03-08. ^ Davis, Robert. Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800.Based on "records for 27,233 voyages that set out to obtain slaves for the Americas". Stephen Behrendt, "Transatlantic Slave Trade", Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience (New York: Basic Civitas Books, 1999), ISBN 0-465-00071-1. ^ Ehud R. Toledano (1998). Slavery and abolition in the Ottoman Middle East. University of Washington Press. pp. 13–4. ISBN 0-295-97642-X. ^ a b Leupp, Gary P. (2003). Interracial Intimacy in Japan. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 49. ISBN 0-8264-6074-7. ^ a b Leupp, Gary P. (2003). Interracial Intimacy in Japan. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 52. ISBN 0-8264-6074-7. ^ Fischer-Tiné, Harald (2003). "'White women degrading themselves to the lowest depths': European networks of prostitution and colonial anxieties in British India and Ceylon ca. 1880–1914". Indian Economic Social History Review 40 (2): 163–90 [175–81]. doi:10.1177/001946460304000202. ^ "Comfort Women Were Raped". U.S. Ambassador to Japan. English.chosun.com. Further reading Davis, Robert Murray (2003). Christian slaves, Muslim masters: white slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500–1800. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-4551-9. Walsh, Michael J.; Don Jordan (2008). White Cargo: The Forgotten History of Britain's White Slaves in America. NYU PRESS. ISBN 0-8147-4296-3. Lal, Kishori Saran (1994). Muslim Slave System in Medieval India. Columbia, Mo: South Asia Books. ISBN 81-85689-67-9. Markon, Jerry, Washington Post. “Human Trafficking Evokes Outrage, Little Evidence” 23 September 2007 Fine, Glenn U.S. Justice Department Inspector General Glenn Fine report 8 August 2008: Davies, Nick Guardian newspaper “Inquiry fails to find single trafficker who forced anybody into prostitution” 20 October 2009 Davies, Nick Guardian newspaper “Prostitution and trafficking – the anatomy of a moral panic” 20 October 2009 Ozimek, John The register “UK gov prostituiton proposals caught with pants down” 22 October 2009: Dasgupta, Rajashri, and Murthy, Laxmi The hoot media: “Human trafficking exaggerated numbers?” January 2009 Weitzer, Ronald -George Washington University report Waterfield, Bruno Spiked online “Exposed: the myth of the World Cup sex slaves” February 2007 Slavery with a capital S External links Ex-Prostitutes Say South Korea and U.S. Enabled Sex Trade Near Bases – NYTimes.com Sex-trafficking online resources [show] v t e Sexual abuse [show] v t e Violence against women Categories: African-American history Crimes against humanity Sex crimes Sex industry Sexism Forced prostitution Gender-based violence Human trafficking Slavery by type Violence against women War rape